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chinaren 发表于 2006-6-10 19:22

诺贝尔奖获得者全书【1978】【经济学奖】

  诺贝尔奖获得者全书【1978】【经济学奖】
【获奖类别】经济学奖
【获奖年代】1978年
【获得情况】赫泊特·亚·西蒙[img]http://nobelprize.org/economics/laureates/1978/simon.jpg[/img]
Herbert A. Simon  

USA  

Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, PA, USA  
b. 1916
d. 2001

【获奖理由】对于经济组织内的决策程序进行了研究,这一有关决策程序的基本理论被公认为关于公司企业实际决策的创见解

【研究成果】以管理学家而获得诺贝尔经济学奖的,至今只有一人,这就是决策理论的大师——赫伯特·A·西蒙。同别的管理学大师相比,他看起来貌不惊人,平平淡淡,一团和气,笑容可掬,是那种典型的书院式学者,他身上没有什么别具一格的传说,也没有能引起轰动效应的绯闻或趣事,只是把等身的著作留给了世界。也许,他与众不同的地方只有一点,就是他对国际象棋的痴迷。他似乎要透过那黑白相间的棋盘,参透人类的奥秘。他的理论,对管理学的发展有着方向性的影响。



从管理学家到科学家

西蒙的家庭是一个典型的美国中产阶级家庭,父亲是德国移民,犹太人,电气工程师,受过严谨的德国式大学教育,一生有几十项发明专利,母亲来自一个钢琴世家,在音乐专科学校任教。父亲的严谨认真、一丝不苟,对西蒙的性格有着重大影响,而母亲则给他留下了一手出色的钢琴技艺。对西蒙影响最大的,是他的舅舅哈洛德·迈可尔,迈可尔师从于制度经济学家康芒斯,在国家工业委员会工作,是他最早把西蒙引上了社会科学的探索道路。

西蒙的天资是过人的,他6岁上学,小学就跳了几级,不足17岁就高中毕业。因此,在高中和大学,他要比同班的学生小两三岁。在同学们中间,留下较深印象的是他的聪明、色盲和左撇子习惯。1933年上芝加哥大学时,他本来想学经济学,但学经济学要求先修一门会计课程,于是,他尽管已经读过大量经济学书籍,还是改上了没有先修课程要求的政治学专业。大学二年级时,他就修完了政治学方面的课程,把自己的精力放在物理学、心理学、计量经济学和逻辑学等方面。由此,奠定了他运用严格的数理逻辑研究社会科学的学术方向。

大学毕业前夕,西蒙结识了里德利,里德利是国际城市管理者协会主任,芝加哥大学兼职教授。西蒙在选修里德利的市政管理课程时,参加了里德利的课题,进行市政管理的计量研究,开始在《公共管理》杂志发表文章,22岁时就成为《公共管理》月刊和《地方年鉴》的助理编辑。西蒙给里德利当助手做出的成就,引起了加州大学伯克利分校的注意,邀请他设计洛克菲勒基金会资助的地方政府研究项目。1939年,西蒙被伯克利聘为地方政府研究项目的主管。就在这一阶段,他形成了自己对管理学基本问题的研究思想,并作为他的博士论文的主题。这一博士论文,就是他后来赖以问鼎诺贝尔奖的大作《管理行为》的雏形。这时,西蒙已经在事实上进入了管理学家行列。

在朋友的推荐下,伊利诺伊理工学院聘请西蒙任教。在伊利诺伊,他深入展开了自己的研究。从他开设的课程来看,他已经成为社会科学的多面手。他讲授宪法学、城市规划、地缘政治学、合同法、统计学、劳动经济学、运筹学、美国史等等,还开设了科学哲学讨论班,并加入芝加哥大学的考尔斯委员会每周一次的经济学讨论班。伊利诺伊的经历,使西蒙的管理学研究更为深入,尤其在公共管理领域形成了相应的研究特色,有了如史密斯伯格、汤普森等研究伙伴,同时开始了他以数理逻辑方法融合社会科学各领域的研究起点。

1949年,西蒙应聘到位于匹兹堡的卡内基大学,担任行政学教授和工业管理系主任。在这里,西蒙深入展开组织行为的研究,重视逻辑和理论的教学特点,使卡内基大学的工业管理研究生院名声鹊起,走出了一条不同于哈佛商学院案例教学式的管理教育道路,西蒙的管理学研究,在这里达到了顶点。

1955年,西蒙的研究方向发生了重大转移。在这之前,他虽然在多个学科领域跋涉,但基本上还是在管理学、经济学的大范围内游弋。但这种多学科的综合研究迟迟早早会导致学术性“溢出”。在卡内基,这种“溢出”的火候到了。他在管理学和经济学上的造诣,使他在接触到计算机后,一眼就看出了这种机器有可能带来的奇迹。于是,他立即转向了“人类问题解决”的心理学研究上,特别是转到对人类用于思维过程的符号处理研究上。从此,西蒙开始了他在计算机技术领域的创新,并赢得了人工智能创始人之一的地位。

尽管西蒙后期主要从事心理学和人工智能研究,但他的学术经历、他的研究方法、他的思想范围,远远不限于单一的心理学。比如,他一生对国际象棋十分痴迷,在他眼里,国际象棋几乎就是人类世界的缩影。从象棋里面,可以发现人类的思维习惯、符号解读,也可以进行程序编译、路径选择,还能够模拟决策方式、管理活动,等等。总之,如果说,“一滴水可以映射出太阳的光辉”是哲学家式的语言,那么,在西蒙那里,一副象棋可以包纳所有人类科学。在他那里,科学的分门别类不构成通行的障碍,反而是他前进的标志。他几乎把自然科学、社会科学、工程技术、甚至还有部分人文科学都融汇到了一起。在当代科学发展史上,西蒙是为数不多的那种不需要以学科来限定头衔的大科学家。

西蒙后来的研究重点已经不在管理学领域,不过,他对组织与管理的研究成果却使管理学产生了划时代的变化。他提出的决策理论在当代管理学中至今引领着研究潮流。由于他“对经济组织内的决策程序所进行的开创性研究”,在1978年被瑞典皇家科学院授予诺贝尔经济学奖。现代企业经济学和管理研究越来越重视他的思想,组织行为研究和决策理论已经被成功地用于解释和预测各方面的活动。以诺贝尔经济学奖而言,西蒙是以管理学家身份获得这一殊荣的惟一人士。仅此而论,西蒙虽不敢说是后无来者,但肯定是前无古人。在管理学领域,西蒙的有限理性学说、组织行为研究、决策程序研究、决策心理机制分析,都具有理论上的开创意义。



有限理性和满意决策

西蒙认为,长期以来,在关于人类行为的理性方面存在着两个极端。一个极端是由弗洛伊德开始的,就是试图把所有人类的认知活动都归因于情感的支配。因此,从情感的角度看,我们可以发现,穷人家孩子眼里看到的硬币,比富人家的孩子看到的更大。对此,西蒙提出了批评。他强调,组织成员的行为如果不是完全理智的,至少在很大程度上是符合理性的。情感的作用并不支配人的全部,哪怕对硬币再有好感,也不会把硬币看作钻石。因此,如果我们要从心理学的角度来解释人在组织中的行为,理性行为理论就必须在其中占有一席之地。另一个极端是,经济学家的“经济人”假设,赋予了人类无所不知的理性。在“经济人”的观察角度下,似乎人类能够拥有完整、一致的偏好体系,让他始终可以在各种备选方案之中进行选择;他始终十分清楚到底有哪些备选方案;为了确定最优备选方案,他可以进行无限复杂的运算,概率计算对他来说既不恐怖也不神秘。对此,西蒙也进行了反驳。他指出,单一个体的行为不可能达到完全理性的高度,因为他必须考虑的备选方案的数量太大,评价备选方案所需要的信息太多。西蒙还以调侃的语气评论道:虽然完全理性的假设在目前已经达到了托马斯式的精巧状态,并且也具有巨大的智慧象征和美学魅力,但是与现实中人的真实行为或可能行为之间几乎没有多大关系。基于此,西蒙认为,人类行为是理性的,但不是完全理性的,一句话:理性有限。

那么,这种理性的限制究竟有哪些?首先,知识的不完备性就横在了我们面前。完全理性意味着行为主体必须完全了解并预期每项决策产生的结果,而这在实际中是不可能达到的。西蒙指出,因为每个人对于自己行动所处的环境条件只有片面的、局部的了解,从而对其中蕴含的规律和规则也只能有一个粗浅的洞察。做到明察秋毫、全知全能,不过是说说而已的神话。既然人们是在这样的基础上来推导未来的结果,那么行为主体对决策结果的了解必定是不完整的。举例来说,如果我们要吃一碗面条,如果你打算把涉及到面条的所有知识都掌握了再去吃它,对不起,那你只能等着挨饿。因为即使一碗普通的面条,其中蕴含的营养学、生物学、生物化学、物理学、生理学等等数不清的知识,是无数学者不断探索也没有彻底弄明白的。哪怕是其中一个小小的生化反应细节,也需要学者们在实验室里折腾多次才可能了解皮毛。这样,我们只能在大致了解一点吃饭的知识后,比如知道它可以给你补充卡路里,你就可以着手选择是吃面条还是吃米饭。你大可不必为不了解面粉和米粒不同的分子结构而苦恼,也不需要由于你不知道二者的微量元素含量不同而羞愧。

再进一步,即使你了解了全部相关知识,则会被随之而来的预期难题所困扰。完全理性要求行为主体始终具有完整一致的价值偏好体系,只有这样,真实体验才能与预期始终保持一致。然而,从经验上就可以知道,真实体验可能比预期的合意得多,也可能正好相反。西蒙认为,这种预期和实际差异的原因,在于我们的大脑并非在某一时间就掌握了所有的结果,而是随着对结果偏好的转移,注意力也会从某一价值要素转向了另一种价值要素。因此,就算我们相当完整地描述了抉择的结果,这种预期所带来的情感波动也几乎不如真实体验所带来的情感波动效果明显。所以,要完整地预期价值是不可能的。再拿吃面条说事,假如你关于面条的知识已经足够多了,但是,你在吃面条的时候首先支配你的是想法是它能充饥,随着进食,你的饥饿感开始消失,这时你的价值要素就可能由充饥变成了口感要求。即使口感、营养、卫生等等价值需求全部满足了,你还有可能因为它的好吃不由自主地多吃一点。这种好吃年复一年导致了你发胖,你就可能不再把补充营养当回事,而是把减少热量摄入放在首位。价值偏好的转移,使你在最初不可能对各种价值精确地排序和加权,你就只好大约摸着吃吧。我们常常是按照这种“差不多”的逻辑来进行优先选择的。

最后,还有行为的可行性范围的限制。按照完全理性的要求,行为主体要在所有可行的备选方案中作出选择。但令人遗憾的是,每种备选方案都有各自独特的结果,而人们却并不具备有关每个备选方案所导致后果的所有认知,所以许多可能方案甚至根本无法进入行为主体的评价范围。因此,无论在任何时刻,行为主体都只能想出非常有限的几个可能方案作为备选方案。有人用找对象作了这样的比喻:假如要在茫茫人海中找到合适的对象,表面看起来有无数方案可供选择,实际上你很难找到最称心如意的。当你迫不及待选定一个时,你总会在后来发现还有更好的;但当你磋砣岁月一无所获时,你又会发现当初错过了那个最合适的。因此,你只有容忍选择中的可行性局限,你才能应对生活。

从有限理性出发,西蒙提出了满意型决策的概念。从逻辑上讲,完全理性会导致人们寻求最优型决策,有限理性则导致人们寻求满意型决策。以往的人们研究决策,总是立足于最优型决策,在理论上和逻辑上,最优型决策是成立的。然而在现实中,或者是受人类行为的非理性方面的限制,或者是最优选择的信息条件不可能得到满足,或者是在无限接近最优的过程中极大的增加决策成本而得不偿失,最优决策是难以实现的。因而,西蒙提出用满意型决策代替最优型决策。所谓满意,是指决策只需要满足两个条件即可:一是有相应的最低满意标准,二是策略选择能够超过最低满意标准。在这里,如果把决策比作大海捞针,最优型决策就是要求在海底所有的针中间捞出最尖最好的那枚针,而满意型决策则只要求在有限的几枚针中捞出尖得足以缝衣服的那枚针即可,即使还有更好的针,对决策者来说已经无意义了。

西蒙虽然因为提出有限理性和满意型决策而闻名于世,不过他并不否定理性的作用,相反,他高度肯定那些试图突破有限理性的可贵尝试。一则,人类可以通过对行为过程的密切观察,来探索原来没有进入视野的可能方案,以此扩大可行方案的抉择范围。这样有助于部分地克服方案的可行性范围限制这个难题。西蒙认为,整个工具发明和技能培训领域都属于这一类情况。二则,如果在不存在显著间接效应(即经济学中所说的外部性)的前提下,在实际决策过程中,人们可以分离出一个只包括有限变量和有限结果的封闭系统,对系统外的变量和结果忽略不计,而只考虑那些在因果关系上和时间序列上与决策最密切相关的因素。西蒙指出,这样有助于部分地克服知识不完备性这个难题。诚然,在可预见的将来,人类很难实现从有限理性向完全理性的飞跃,因而也无法完成满意型决策向最优型决策的最终跨越,但理想与现实的鸿沟会一直激励着人们将这种宝贵的尝试持续下去。由此,我们可以看出,西蒙在否定完全理性后,又回归到崇尚理性的原点。在这一意义上,西蒙是对此前经济学理论中的完全理性假设与现实中的不完全理性进行了调适。他的贡献,在于从逻辑上打通了人类理想与现实的沟堑。



组织行为和个人决策

组织与个人的关系,是管理学里面纠缠不清但又非常重要的问题之一。在韦伯那里,组织的理性排斥了人的个性,最终使人变成组织的工具;而在阿吉里斯那里,组织是阻碍个人成长的怪物,管理学的出路在于组织上的革命。西蒙不是那么极端,在二者之间小心翼翼地寻找出路,他以逻辑实证的方法,论证了组织与个人的一致性。

有着多学科知识背景的西蒙,借用社会学中的一个概念“角色体系”来研究组织。在这一点上,他继承了社会系统学派巴纳德的思想,强调人的主体性,立足于“人”本身来认识组织,从而将人和组织有机的结合了起来,在理论上完善了人本管理的逻辑基础。西蒙指出,组织实际上是一个人类群体的信息沟通及其相互关系的复杂模式。组织向它的每个成员提供其决策所需要的大量信息,并确定了其成员的决策前提、预定目标和行为态度。比如,你在一个工厂里上班,你就能够通过工厂的运作知道,头儿会对你提出什么要求,你该做些什么,其他工友大致上会做哪些事,工友们会对你的言行有什么可以预料到的反应,等等。这些了解,使你能够明确区分大街上的行人与共事的同仁之间的差别。而所有这些,最终影响的是你同工友的群体行为。正因为这样,西蒙的决策理论又被人们称为组织行为理论。

实际上,行为科学家早已经注意到以往组织理论的局限性。西蒙继承了行为科学的思路,他批评说,从泰罗开始,人们经常谈到的组织,不过是画在纸上的组织图,或是写在叙述工作职责的精细手册中的那个东西。这种把组织部门画成图或写成手册的做法,使大多数人对组织的本质形成了极大误解。这一批评,可以说直接指向了古典组织理论的命门。西蒙指出,在以往的所谓组织理论中,“人”却失去了位置。在那里,组织与其说是为了供人居住而设计的卧室,还不如说是以抽象的建筑逻辑而设想出来的一排排井然有序但无人的住宅。如果这种偏差不改变,难免本末倒置。所以,我们在现实中常常可以看到,在传统理念支配下的组织,虽然有可能打出“以人为本”的大旗,却常常自觉不自觉地把组织中的成员仅仅当作实现组织目标的工具。从人出发研究组织,使西蒙吸取了行为科学重视人自身的长处,又避免了行为科学对正式组织的忽视。

如果沿着过去的思路,那么,组织的研究就会热衷于结构之类的问题,不外乎是应当集权还是应当分权?是应当强化直线制还是应当巩固扩大参谋制?是应当根据产品进行组织设计还是应当依据生产过程进行组织设计?西蒙对此表现出极大地不认同。他认为以往这些关于组织问题的讨论,往往是以完全正式的、不考虑人性的方式展开的,就好像这些问题与人的行为毫无关系似的。因而在西蒙的研究中,不但回避了这些问题,而且采用了截然不同的思路。

西蒙旗帜鲜明地提出,组织结构之所以重要,就在于组织结构会影响到经理和管理人员以及他们的群体行为选择。从这一开创性的思路出发来认识决策,就能体会到,组织对个人决策的影响,不是由组织来决定它的成员干什么,而是由组织提供给它的成员大量信息。这些信息构成组织成员选择行为的依据。因而,组织向其成员施加影响的关键是决策前提,而不是决策本身。

再进一步,西蒙将决策前提分为两大类。一类是事实前提,即技术、知识、情报信息这类可观察到的事物及其运动方式的陈述,陈述的正误可以由经验事实进行验证。另一类是价值前提,即个人的某种行为及其前景、后果的主观性评价,诸如组织目的、效率标准(效率标准如果作为手段则属于事实前提)、公平标准、个人价值等。

西蒙特别指出,在决策时,组织具有一种独一无二的作用,那就是克服群体行为的不稳定性。我们知道,决策常常不是孤立的,大多数的决策必须同时考虑其他人的反应。也就是说,每个人为了确定自己行动的结果,必须了解他人所采取的行动,比如,一个教师早上去教室上课,他做出这一行为的前提是预计学生在教室里等他。如果教师知道学生统统没来(暂且不管是什么原因造成的没来),教师自然就不用去教室。而组织通过各种方式,给教师传递的信息是学生在等候,给学生传递的信息是今天早上有这个老师的课程,即提供了学生和教师决策的事实前提;而且组织还会培养学生的求知欲望,引导教师的探索兴趣,以各种方式形成师生对知识价值的共同判断,即提供了价值前提。这样,学校作为一个组织,其作用就通过教师和学生的行为选择反映了出来。没有学校的这种作用,个人行为就无法整合为组织行为。在西蒙看来,组织本质上就是一个合作行为系统,它具备了克服群体行为不稳定性的优点。组织向每位成员提供其他成员行为的信息,作为该成员个人制订决策的依据,而实现组织目标的内在要求,使得组织成员必然偏好于同样的期望。这样,每个人都能在比较准确地预测其他人行为的基础上,自觉地为这种共同偏好而采取一致行动,以求获得期望的结果。所以,组织设计不在于结构多么清晰,而在于能否形成价值选择和认同。

对于这种组织中的价值选择和认同,西蒙做了一个很有意思的假设。假设有某个公司的四位经理人员(一位经销经理,一位生产计划主管,一位生产部门主管,一位产品设计师)正在讨论公司产品设计、生产和销售过程中的共同问题。那么,经销经理最关心的是来自消费者的价廉物美、交货迅速的要求,生产计划主管则希望能准确预测产品销售量以便自己安排工作,生产部门主管却主张引导消费者,少作轻率仓促变更以保持生产的稳定性,产品设计师则抱怨工厂在产品更新方面落在其他企业后面,如此等等。如果没有组织,这四个人的争吵就没有终结。西蒙认为,组织理论必须研究组织成员作为组织中的不同角色在价值选择和组织认同上的不同表现。由此出发,西蒙把人与组织统一起来,让这些假想中的经理人员,通过组织来实现他们行为上的协调。

实际上,上面这四个人的争吵只有通过组织才能达到协调,这种协调的本质就是提高这四个人的理性水平。组织恰恰能够提高人类行为的理性程度,因此,组织才是必要的。西蒙认为,在增加个人决策的合理程度方面,组织具有以下功能:第一,克服个人知识的局限,利用专业化和职能分工,帮助其成员整理、加工并提供与其决策直接相关的信息,排除不必要的信息,确定什么因素重要,什么因素不重要,形成决策的信息前提。第二,帮助组织成员了解其他人的行为趋向,以克服群体行为的不稳定性。换句话说,组织能使群体形成协作关系,每个人的目的都是共同目的的一个组成部分,每个人都可以通过组织掌握他人将会采取何种行动,作为自己的决策依据。第三,组织可以形成稳定的目标体系和价值尺度,例如组织的使命等等,从而帮助每个成员能够采用共同的评判标准,获得行为的整合性和一致性。



决策程序和认知科学

西蒙驳斥了那种认为决策仅仅是从几个备选方案中选定一个方案的看法,他把决策行为从逻辑上展开,从认知科学的角度把决策程序划分为四个阶段。一是搜集情报阶段,即了解环境变化,寻求相关的决策信息,找出制定决策的理由,西蒙称之为“信息活动”。这个阶段主要是提出问题,制定目标。人们在大量信息中发现和判定需要处理的问题,依据问题的性质和重要程度、急迫程度确定行为方向,进而针对解决问题的要求形成所要达到的行动目标,用目标来界定问题的解决途径。二是拟定计划阶段,即寻找、制定并分析各种有可能达到决策目标的备选方案,西蒙称之为“设计活动”。这个阶段主要是综合考虑个人和组织的内外环境中各种可控和不可控因素,提出相应的多种能实现目标的备选方案。三是选定计划阶段,即在各个行动方案中进行抉择,从一组备选方案中选出并确定一个最符合某种满意标准的方案,西蒙称之为“选择活动”。一般来说,这个阶段需要权衡利弊,综合考虑,“两利相衡取其重,两害相衡取其轻”。四是检验评价阶段,即对已进行的抉择在实施中进行评价和矫正,西蒙称之为“审查阶段”。通过修正决策目标或备选方案,来应对主客观条件的变化和备选方案本身的错误或遗漏。

西蒙的“情报—设计—选择—审查”决策程序论,实际上立足于他的认知科学研究。有人批评说,这种四步走的划分法,把决策简单化为一个呆板的线性过程。西蒙认为,这种批评存在误解。四步走的决策过程,就是人的认知过程在决策中的逻辑再现。它当然不是单一线性的,而是多层次的循环。比如,在设计阶段,可能又会提出新的搜集信息要求,而搜集信息又会引发更进一步的设计活动。次级的设计还会要求进一步搜集信息。以此类推,用图形表示就是大圈套小圈,小圈之中还有圈。但是,总体逻辑是明确的,这个程序就是要逐一给出下列答案:问题是什么?解决问题的方案是什么?那个方案要好一些?选定的方案要不要修正?

在笔者看来,《管理决策新科学》所提出的这一决策程序也许计算机化的味道过于浓了一些,但是,至今还无人能够从科学的角度把它驳倒。相反,正是这种计算机化,使这一程序同决策科学化高度关联。要想实现决策的科学化,只能按照它,不能违背它。按照这个程序一板一眼走下来,不见得就完全科学,但违背了它则肯定不科学。我们现实中的拍脑袋、拍胸脯、拍屁股的“三拍”式决策,恰恰是问题不清就盲目设计,没有设计就贸然拍板,拍板之后不加验证等毛病造成的。“边设计,边施工,边投产”式“三边”政策的荒谬,正好反证了这一程序的科学性。

西蒙从认知心理出发,对追踪决策的特殊性也进行了探讨。追踪决策与“纸上谈兵”的初始决策不同。初始决策是以零为起点的,客观对象和环境未受决策实施的干扰和影响;追踪决策则是非零起点的,面临的对象和条件已非初始状态,它之前的原方案已得到部分执行,因而必须考虑原方式的实施程度和影响。也就是说,经济学中定义的沉没成本(Sunk Costs)——现在不可收回的时间或金钱上的投资,正是初始决策和追踪决策的本质区别所在。

在这一点上,西蒙认为,就是因为存在这种具有长期效应而且不可撤消的决策,所以个人行为和组织行为在时间上存在着相对一致性。个人或组织之所以会坚持特定的行为路线,是因为一旦事实上开始执行某个特定的行动方案,那么最好将它继续进行下去,否则就要或者部分或者完全放弃已经执行的那一部分,而这必然将导致损失。但是,同多数人只看到沉没成本的消极作用恰恰相反,西蒙把沉没成本看成是决策中的积极因素。在西蒙眼里,这种沉没成本对决策的限制,虽然不是理性的充分条件,但肯定是理性的必要条件,因为它缩小了个人或组织每时每刻必须考虑的备选方案的范围,从而能给行为带来理性,否则行为就变得不可思议了。

不过,事物的存在总是福祸相依,利弊相随,有时,决策也会沦为沉没成本的受害者。沉没成本的存在,往往使得决策者有意不承认过去的决策错误,因而也不能把自己从过去的决策中解放出来。显然,承认个人的决策失误可能只会伤害自尊和面子,而承认组织的决策错误则经常关系到权力和利益问题,并会导致相关人员为失误所造成的损失和后果负责。所以,将过去不再正确的决策仍然当成正确的决策是人们经常干的事,在此基础上形成的追踪决策很可能不过是一个更大的错误,只要能摆脱责任,即使损失更大也在所不惜。这也就是那句老话——为了掩盖一个错误而制造一个更大的错误。

此外,现代心理学的研究表明:人们内心深处具有保护自我免受伤害的愿望,这就使得决策者对维持现状的决策有着较强的偏好。沉没成本的存在,不仅加重了组织决策中的惯性因素,而且也为决策者墨守成规、安于现状提供了冠冕堂皇的借口。可以想见,在涉及改革性的决策时,如果被沉没成本局限,随着时间的流逝,这种沉没成本会日益加大,决策者也会越来越受困于现状,推动变革的决策也将越来越难以做出。因此,强调沉没成本的弊端,有利于引起决策者的警惕。



决策中的心理机制

在心理学家看来,人类理性是在心理环境的限度内发挥作用的。西蒙之所以能够把理性行为条分细缕,像照X光一样理个通透,并在决策方面取得突破性的成就,与他大量引用心理学的成果来探讨决策中人的内心活动密不可分。

西蒙把与决策相关的心理基础归纳为学习、记忆和习惯三个方面。西蒙认为,人类在学习方面具有动物望尘莫及的巨大优势。人不仅可以通过实际体验和实验的方法学习,还可以通过参照原始资料,参照别人在相关领域长期实验和研究的基础上得出的结论进行学习,并且还能根据个人成败的经历对这种累积经验进行选择和修正。正是通过实验、知识交流和对结果进行理论预测等学习过程,人才能将相对较少的经验作为大范围决策的依据,从而达到节省思考和观察的效果。

学习过程中自然而然地就会产生记忆,通过记忆,人们在首次解决问题时,就把收集到的信息甚至结论都储存到了头脑中,而当类似的问题再次出现时,不需要重新研究,就可以直接利用记忆中储存的信息。这里,记忆既可以是自然记忆,也可以是由信息库、文件和记录所组成的人为记忆。必须强调的是,无论是自然记忆还是人为记忆,要发挥作用,都必须具备根据需要提取记忆信息的关联机制和检索机制。这样,人们制定决策时,一旦需要记忆中储存的信息,利用这些机制就可以找到。

记忆多次重复之后,遇到同类问题就形成了习惯。西蒙认为,习惯是一种有助于保存有效行为模式的机制。习惯的作用就在于,它不需要人们重新思考采取正确行动的决策,就能让类似的刺激或情形产生类似的反应。因为习惯一旦养成,就会在一定的刺激下引发惯性行为,而不再需要深思熟虑。所以,人们才能把注意力投入到需要思考的新层面上。西蒙指出,同记忆一样,习惯在组织中也有人为的形式,即斯坦尼所说的“组织惯例”。如果处理重复性问题的方法被写进工作手册和程序手册里,从而形成了组织惯例,那么该类问题出现时就不再是人们重新考虑的问题,这样就大大简化了组织的决策。

在学习、记忆和习惯这三种心理学因素作用下,西蒙主张把行为模式分为两种类型。他将那种一旦出现刺激,便几乎毫不犹豫地发生响应的行为,称为简单的行为模式,即“刺激-反应”模式。而将那种需要对备选行动方案、环境条件、行为结果和预期价值进行分析比较,抉择前一定要经过一番犹豫思考的行为,称为复杂的行为模式,即“犹豫-抉择”模式。以往的管理学家,常常过多地强调和肯定“犹豫-抉择”模式,忽视和否定“刺激-反应”模式。西蒙的看法与众不同。他认为,人如果什么事情都要犹豫不决,仔细盘算,就会错过行动时机。组织实际上无时无刻不在培育人们的简单行为模式。对于刺激的反映,人们大部分行为是习惯性的,而且往往是合理的。因为对目的而言,它是事先被条件限制的适应性行动。西蒙的这一论断,对于管理者应该说有启发意义。管理不是越复杂越好,而是越简单越好。运用非常复杂的先进技术去处理简单小事,还为自己掌握了高明手法而沾沾自喜的人是蠢才,而运用简单方法解决了复杂问题,极大节约管理成本的人,才是经营中的高手。

西蒙对于直觉在管理中的作用也有着深入的研究。管理学从诞生起,就非常重视理性。但令人困惑的是,长期以来的管理研究却发现,当理性的逻辑方法不奏效的时候,管理者常常依靠直觉来解决复杂的问题。而且,在组织中的职位越高,越需要敏锐的直觉。实践中,许多高层管理者也证实,他们平时作重大决策时,利用的是“直觉”、“本能”或“预感”,而并不依赖于任何理性的逻辑分析。当过新泽西贝尔公司总经理的管理学家巴纳德就曾以自身的体会惊呼:经理人员在制定决策时,往往无法以有条不紊的理性分析为依据,而是在很大程度上依靠他们对决策需求情境的直觉或判断反应。请不要忽略非逻辑性或直觉!

那么,直觉到底是什么?直觉是怎样在决策中发挥作用的?什么时候是可以信赖的直觉?什么时候只是盲目的冲动?这些问题一直成为困扰管理学界的斯芬克斯之谜。西蒙的决策研究恰恰为解开这个谜提供了一把钥匙。

西蒙认为,直觉也是一种分析,只不过已被固化成习惯而已,直觉的作用是帮助人们识别熟悉或类似的情境类型。西蒙以国际象棋大师为例,形象地揭示了直觉的奥妙。顶级的大师,能够辨认和回想起大约五万种棋子在棋盘上的不同排列组合,并且通常依靠直觉在很短时间内就能找到妙招。秘密在于,对大师而言,任何一场棋局中的棋子,都是固定的熟悉的阵势,而并非随意摆放的,这些阵势就像老朋友一样很容易辨认,大师识别了阵势,才能够快速地下出不失水准的好棋,所有这一切,来自于顶级大师对熟悉情境的记忆和识别。对此,德鲁克也采用了类似的分析,他把决策中遇到的问题分为普遍事件和特殊事件两类,并认为,各种普遍事件只需要一个普遍的解决方案或者说是一个准则、一个政策,所以只要找出正确的准则,这类普遍事件的所有表现,都可以采用已有的准则来解决;而特殊事件则由于无法制定普遍准则而需要单独处理。因此,将决策问题分为两类,一类要依据已有的规律,一类要靠随机应变,能够提高决策的准确性和速度。

但是,必须注意的是,直觉是以经验和知识为基础的识别能力和反应能力的具体体现。快而准的直觉反应能力,其实是知识积累以及运用知识识别问题过程的升华,必须经过多年的经验和训练来培养直觉,才可能具有这种能力。错误冲动的拍脑袋和象棋大师不假思索的妙招相比,尽管看来表现形式很相似,但其实质截然不同。前者是原始冲动和感情支配的直接反应,经常不合时宜;后者是学习所得和经验积累,具有环境适应性。有些管理者只看到别人决策时的果断,而看不到别人事前下的功夫;只看到别人处置问题的自如,而看不到别人平日长期的积累。对此,我们只需反问一句:没有“十月怀胎”,哪能“一朝分娩”?

对于一个组织而言,决策的质量是成败的关键。对于决策者个人而言,决策的质量是水平的标志。在这个意义上讲,无论对组织还是个人,决策都是管理的灵魂。可以说,在这个触及管理灵魂的话题上,西蒙的决策理论不仅是开创性的,而且是我们理解人类行为的一把钥匙。


【研究文献原文存放】:Administrative Behavior
Models of My Life
Human Problem Solving
【其他】Herbert A. Simon – Autobiography


I was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on June 15, 1916. My father, an electrical engineer, had come to the United States in 1903 after earning his engineering diploma at the Technische Hochschule of Darmstadt, Germany. He was an inventor and designer of electrical control gear, later also a patent attorney. An active leader in professional and civic affairs, he received an honorary doctorate from Marquette University for his many activities in the community. My mother, an accomplished pianist, was a third generation American, her forebears having been '48ers who immigrated from Prague and K鰈n. Among my European ancestors were piano builders, goldsmiths, and vintners but to the best of my knowledge, no professionals of any kind. The Merkels in K鰈n were Lutherans, the Goldschmidts in Prague and the Simons in Ebersheim, Jews.

My home nurtured in me an early attachment to books and other things of the intellect, to music, and to the out of doors. I received an excellent general education from the public elementary and high schools in Milwaukee, supplemented by the fine science department of the public library and the many books I found at home. School work was interesting but not difficult, leaving me plenty of time for sandlot baseball and football, for hiking and camping, for reading and for many extracurricular activities during my high school years. A brother, five years my senior, while not a close companion, gave me some anticipatory glimpses of each stage of growing up. Our dinner table at home was a place for discussion and debate - often political, sometimes scientific.

Until well along in my high school years, my interests were quite dispersed, although they were increasingly directed toward science - of what sort I wasn't sure. For most adolescents, science means physics, mathematics, chemistry, or biology - those are the subjects to which they are exposed in school. The idea that human behavior may be studied scientifically is never hinted until much later in the educational process - it was certainly not conveyed by history or "civics" courses as they were then taught.

My case was different. My mother's younger brother, Harold Merkel, had studied economics at the Universtity of Wisconsin under John R. Commons. Uncle Harold had died after a brief career with the National Industrial Conference Board, but his memory was always present in our household as an admired model, as were some of his books on economics and psychology. In that way I discovered the social sciences. Uncle Harold having been an ardent formal debater, I followed him in that activity too.

In order to defend free trade, disarmament, the single tax and other unpopular causes in high school debates, I was led to a serious study of Ely's economics textbook, Norman Angell's The Great Illusion, Henry George's Progress and Poverty, and much else of the same sort.

By the time I was ready to enter the University of Chicago, in 1933, I had a general sense of direction. The social sciences, I thought, needed the same kind of rigor and the same mathematical underpinnings that had made the "hard" sciences so brilliantly successful. I would prepare myself to become a mathematical social scientist. By a combination of formal training and self study, the latter continuing systematically well into the 1940s, I was able to gain a broad base of knowledge in economics and political science, together with reasonable skills in advanced mathematics, symbolic logic, and mathematical statistics. My most important mentor at Chicago was the econometrician and mathematical economist, Henry Schultz, but I studied too with Rudolf Carnap in logic, Nicholas Rashevsky in mathematical biophysics, and Harold Lasswell and Charles Merriam in political science. I also made a serious study of graduate-level physics in order to strengthen and practice my mathematical skills and to gain an intimate knowledge of what a "hard" science was like, particularly on the theoretical side. An unexpected by-product of the latter study has been a lifelong interest in the philosophy of physics and several publications on the axiomatization of classical mechanics.

My career was settled at least as much by drift as by choice. An undergraduate field study for a term paper developed an interest in decision-making in organizations. On graduation in 1936, the term paper led to a research assistantship with Clarence E. Ridley in the field of municipal administration, carrying out investigations that would now be classified as operations research. The research assistantship led to the directorship, from 1939 to 1942, of a research group at the University of California, Berkeley, engaged in the same kinds of studies. By arrangement with the University of Chicago, I took my doctoral exams by mail and moonlighted a dissertation on administrative decision-making during my three years at Berkeley.

When our research grant was exhausted, in 1942, jobs were not plentiful and my military obligations were uncertain. I secured a position in political science at Illinois Institute of Technology by the intercession of a friend who was leaving. The return to Chicago had important, but again largely unanticipated, consequences for me. At that time, the Cowles Commission for Research in Economics was located at the University of Chicago. Its staff included Jacob Marschak and Tjalling Koopmans who were then directing the graduate work of such students as Kenneth Arrow, Leo Hurwicz, Lawrence Klein, and Don Patinkin. Oscar Lange, not yet returned to Poland, Milton Friedman, and Franco Modigliani frequently participated in the Cowles staff seminars, and I also became a regular participant.

That started me on a second education in economics, supplementing the Walrasian theory and Neyman-Pearson statistics I had learned earlier from Henry Schultz (and from Jerzy Neyman in Berkeley) with a careful study of Keyne's General Theory (made comprehensible by the mathematical models proposed by Meade, Hicks, and Modigliani), and the novel econometric techniques being introduced by Frisch and investigated by the Cowles staff. With considerable excitement, too, we examined Samuelson's new papers on comparative statics and dynamics.

I was soon co-opted by Marschak into participating in the study he and Sam Schurr were directing of the prospective economic effects of atomic energy. Taking responsibility for the macroeconomic parts of that study, I used as my analytic tools both classical Cobb-Douglas functions, and the new activity analysis being developed by Koopmans. Although I had earlier published papers on tax incidence (1943) and technological development (1947), the atomic energy project was my real baptism in economic analysis. My interest in mathematical economics having been aroused, I continued active work on problems in that domain, mainly in the period from 1950 to 1955. It was during this time that I worked out the relations between causal ordering and identifiability - coming for the first time in contact with the related work of Herman Wold - discovered and proved (with David Hawkins) the Hawkins-Simon theorem on the conditions for the existence of positive solution vectors for input-output matrices, and developed (with Albert Ando) theorems on near-decomposability and aggregation.

In 1949, Carnegie Institute of Technology received an endowment to establish a Graduate School of Industrial Administration. I left Chicago for Pittsburgh to participate with G.L. Bach, William W. Cooper, and others in developing the new school. Our goal was to place business education on a foundation of fundamental studies in economics and behavioral science. We were fortunate to pick a time for launching this venture when the new management science techniques were just appearing on the horizon, together with the electronic computer. As one part of the effort, I engaged with Charles Holt, and later with Franco Modigliani and John Muth, in developing dynamic programming techniques - the so-called "linear decision rules" - for aggregate inventory control and production smoothing. Holt and I derived the rules for optimal decision under certainty, then proved a certainty-equivalence theorem that permitted our technique to be applied under conditions of uncertainty. Modigliani and Muth went on to construct efficient computational algorithms. At this same time, Tinbergen and Theil were independently developing very similar techniques for national planning in the Netherlands.

Meanwhile, however, the descriptive study of organizational decision-making continued as my main occupation, in this case in collaboration with Harold Guetzkow, James March, Richard Cyert and others. Our work led us to feel increasingly the need for a more adequate theory of human problem-solving if we were to understand decisions. Allen Newell, whom I had met at the Rand Corporation in 1952, held similar views. About 1954, he and I conceived the idea that the right way to study problem-solving was to simulate it with computer programs. Gradually, computer simulation of human cognition became my central research interest, an interest that has continued to be absorbing up to the present time.

My research on problem-solving left me relatively little opportunity to do work of a more classical sort in economics. I did, however, continue to develop stochastic models to explain the observed highly-skewed distributions of sizes of business firms. That work, in collaboration with Yuji Ijiri and others, was summarized in a book published just two years ago.

In this sketch, I have said less about my work on decision-making than about my other research in economics because the former is discussed at greater length in my Nobel lecture. I have also left out of this account those very important parts of my life that have been occupied with my family and with non-scientific pursuits. One of my few important decisions, and the best, was to persuade Dorothea Pye to marry me on Christmas Day, 1937. We have been blessed in being able to share a wide range of our experiences, even to publishing together in two widely separate fields: public administration and cognitive psychology. We have shared also the pleasures and responsibilities of raising three children, none of whom seem imitative of their parents' professional directions, but all of whom have shaped for themselves interesting and challenging lives.

My interests in organizations and administration have extended to participation as well as observation. In addition to three stints as a university department chairman, I have had several modest public assignments. One involved playing a role, in 1948, in the creation of the Economic Cooperation Administration, the agency that administered Marshall Plan aid for the U.S. Government. Another, more frustrating, was service on the President's Science Advisory Committee during the last year of the Johnson administration and the first three years of the Nixon administration. While serving on PSAC, and during another committee assignment with the National Academy of Sciences, I have had opportunities to take part in studies of environmental protection policies. In all of this work, I have tried - I know not with what success - to apply my scientific knowledge of organizations and decision-making, and, conversely, to use these practical experiences to gain new research ideas and insights.

In the "politics" of science, which these and other activites have entailed, I have had two guiding principles - to work for the "hardening" of the social sciences so that they will be better equipped with the tools they need for their difficult research tasks; and to work for close relations between natural scientists and social scientists so that they can jointly contribute their special knowledge and skills to those many complex questions of public policy that call for both kinds of wisdom.

From Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969-1980, Editor Assar Lindbeck, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1992

This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and later published in the book series Les Prix Nobel/Nobel Lectures. The information is sometimes updated with an addendum submitted by the Laureate. To cite this document, always state the source as shown above.

Herbert A. Simon died on February 9, 2001.
【获奖者的获奖演讲】:
Your Majesties, Your Royal Highnesses, Ladies and Gentlemen,

In Saint Exupéry's book Le Petit Prince, there is a delightful story about how the little prince during his journey through the cosmos visits a planet inhabited by an old and learned man. He is a geographer, who is writing an enormous book, and knows everything about lakes, rivers, towns, mountains and deserts. But when the prince asks whether there are any rivers or lakes or deserts on this particular planet, the old man answers that he does not know. A geographer is occupied with tasks that are too serious to leave him any time for excursions outside his study.

If we suppose that the little prince had instead arrived on a planet inhabited by an economist of the old classical or neoclassical school and that he had asked how the firms on that planet made their decisions, he would probably have got a similar answer. An economist has tasks to fulfil that are too important to leave him time for such matters. He must sit in his study and develop theories with complicated systems of equations. In order to get these to tally, he must simply assume that the decisions are taken by an entrepreneur who can always foresee the consequences of his actions, who always acts rationally, and who is always trying to maximize his profit.

It is the appropriateness of such assumptions of a lone decision-maker with infallible foresight, with complete rationality and with profit maximization as his permanent aim that Herbert Simon has questioned.

However, the rudimentary theory of the firm to be found in traditional economics was designed only to serve as a basis for studies of the total market behaviour and not of the behaviour of the individual firms. As long as these firms consisted of small, family-owned, patriarchally run units, and the price competition was fierce, their activities remained relatively uninteresting. However, as companies grew in size, as their activities eventually spread out beyond the national borders, as running them became separated more and more from owning them, as employees began to form labour unions, as the rate of development increased and as price competition between many was replaced by competition with regard to quality and service between few, the behaviour of the individual companies took on quite a different kind of interest. Thus, with time, the study of the structure and the decision-making of the firm became an important task in economic science. It is in this new line of development that Simon's work has been of the utmost importance.

In his epoch-making book Administrative Behavior, which first appeared in 1947 and which has been translated into nearly a dozen languages, as well as in a number of subsequent works, Simon describes the company as an adaptive system of physical, personal and social components, which are held together by a network of intercommunications and by the willingness of its members to co-operate and to work towards common goals. In order to survive and develop, the firm must strive towards an equilibrium not only in relation to the outside world - the economists have known that for a long time - but also internally as between the various components of the organization.

Simon rejects the assumptions made in the classical theory of the firm of an omniscient, rational, profit-maximizing entrepreneur. Instead, he starts from the psychology of learning, with its less complicated rules of choice and its more moderate demands on the memory and the calculating capacity of the decision-maker. He replaces the entrepreneur of the classical school by a number of co-operating decision-makers, whose capacities for rational action are limited by a lack of knowledge of the total consequences of their decisions and by personal and social ties. Since these decision-makers cannot choose a best alternative, as can the classical entrepreneur, they have to be content with a satisfactory alternative. Individual firms, therefore, strive not to maximize profits but to find acceptable solutions to acute problems. This may mean that a number of partly contradictory goals have to be reached at the same time. Each decision-maker in such a situation attempts to find a satisfactory solution to his own set of problems, taking into consideration how the others are solving theirs.

Simon's theories and observations on decision-making in organizations apply well to the systems and techniques of planning, budgeting and control that are used in business and public administration. They are therefore an excellent foundation for empirical research. Modern business economics and administrative research are also to a large extent based on Simon's ideas.

Simon's interest in simplifying and understanding complex decision-making situations has led him into a number of research fields with similar problems, both in economics and in other disciplines. If the little prince had had a chance to meet him, they would certainly have had a most stimulating discussion.

Professor Simon, the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you the 1978 Alfred Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for your pioneering research into the decision-making process in economic organization. It is a great honour for me to be able to convey to you the congratulations of the Academy and to ask you to receive your prize from His Majesty the King.

From Nobel Lectures, Economics 1969-1980, Editor Assar Lindbeck, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1992



【Prize Lecture】
[url]http://nobelprize.org/economics/laureates/1978/simon-lecture.pdf[/url]

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